]]> http://buddhismdigest.wordpress.com/2009/01/09/even-purified-beings-are-led-astray-by-passion/feed/ 0 buddhapuzar even-purify http://buddhismdigest.wordpress.com/2009/01/09/buddha-mudras/ http://buddhismdigest.wordpress.com/2009/01/09/buddha-mudras/#comments Fri, 09 Jan 2009 13:27:48 +0000 buddhapuzar http://buddhismdigest.wordpress.com/?p=112 ]]> Mudras are a non-verbal mode of communication and self-expression, consisting of hand gestures and finger-postures. They are symbolic sign based finger patterns taking the place, but retaining the efficacy of the spoken word, and are used to evoke in the mind ideas symbolizing divine powers or the deities themselves. The composition of a mudra is based on certain movements of the fingers; in other words, they constitute a highly stylized form of gestural communication. It is an external expression of ‘inner resolve’, suggesting that such non-verbal communications are more powerful than the spoken word.

Dharmachakra Mudra

Dharmachakra in Sanskrit means the ‘Wheel of Dharma’. This mudra symbolizes one of the most important moments in the life of Buddha, the occasion when he preached to his companions the first sermon after his Enlightenment in the Deer Park at Sarnath. It thus denotes the setting into motion of the Wheel of the teaching of the Dharma.

Bhumisparsha Mudra

Literally Bhumisparsha translates into ‘touching the earth’. It is more commonly known as the ‘earth witness’ mudra. This mudra, formed with all five fingers of the right hand extended to touch the ground, symbolizes the Buddha’s enlightenment under the bodhi tree, when he summoned the earth goddess, Sthavara, to bear witness to his attainment of enlightenment. The right hand, placed upon the right knee in earth-pressing mudra, and complemented by the left hand-which is held flat in the lap in the dhyana mudra of meditation, symbolizes the union of method and wisdom, samasara and nirvana, and also the realizations of the conventional and ultimate truths. It is in this posture that Shakyamuni overcame the obstructions of Mara while meditating on Truth.

Varada Mudra

This mudra symbolizes charity, compassion and boon-granting. It is the mudra of the accomplishment of the wish to devote oneself to human salvation. It is nearly always made with the left hand, and can be made with the arm hanging naturally at the side of the body, the palm of the open hand facing forward, and the fingers extended.

Dhyana Mudra

The Dhyana mudra may be made with one or both hands. When made with a single hand the left one is placed in the lap, while the right may be engaged elsewhere. The left hand making the Dhyana mudra in such cases symbolizes the female left-hand principle of wisdom. Ritual objects such as a text, or more commonly an alms bowl symbolizing renunciation, may be placed in the open palm of this left hand.

Abhaya Mudra

Abhaya in Sanskrit means fearlessness. Thus this mudra symbolizes protection, peace, and the dispelling of fear. It is made with the right hand raised to shoulder height, the arm crooked, the palm of the hand facing outward, and the fingers upright and joined. The left hand hangs down at the side of the body. In Thailand, and especially in Laos, this mudra is associated with the movement of the walking Buddha (also called ‘the Buddha placing his footprint’). It is nearly always used in images showing the Buddha upright, either immobile with the feet joined, or walking.

A small dusty town in the eastern part of Uttar Pradesh, Kushinagar is the place where Lord Gautam Buddha breathed his last. This is also the place where Lord Buddha preached his last sermon.

Now

There are many places of religious importance in Kushinagar. Rambhar Stupa is the most important landmark of Kushinagar. The stupa is said to have been built on the same spot where Lord Buddha was cremated in 483 BC. Mahaparinirvana Temple is another important attraction in Kushinagar with a huge statue of Lord Buddha in reclining position. Mathakuar Shrine is the place where Lord Buddha had given his last sermon. There are many modern temples, stupas, and shrines in Kushinagar built by various Buddhist countries. A museum here houses objects found during the excavation of Kushinagar.

History
Kushinagar was an important centre under Mauryan King Ashoka, a great Buddhist follower. Most of the religious structures here were constructed between 3rd century BC and 5th century AD. For a long time Kushinagar remained lost in the jungles and was unknown to the world till 19th century when the British rediscovered it in 1880. Extensive excavations have indicated the presence of a large number of monks here as late as 11th century AD.

Having attained Buddhahood, the supreme state of perfection, Buddha devoted the remainder of his precious life to serving humanity, both by example and precept, without any personal motive whatsoever. In order to deliver his first sermon the Buddha started for Benares.

(The place where his first five disciples greeted Buddha.)
At Benares he met Kondanna and his four companions in the Deer Park, now known as Saranath.

Then he preached them his first great sermon, the Dhammacakkapavattana Sutta, in which he explained the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path. They received ordination and formed the first nucleus of the holy brotherhood of disciples known as the Sangha.

(The place where Buddha preached his second sermon.)
Three months after the first sermon, Buddha gave his second sermon to his first five disciples and they all attained Nirvarna, a morally perfect state.
Now

Sarnath, where the Buddha preached his first sermon in the Deer Park (Migadavon), is 10 km from Varanasi_ the city of Varanasi is situated along the west bank of the Ganges in the north Indian state of Uttar Pradesh;called Benaras by the British_ and it has most impressive remains, as well as a modem temple.

Early in the morning on the full moon day of Vesakha, as he was seated in deep meditation under the Bodhi Tree, unaided and unguided by any supernatural agency but solely relying on his own efforts, Siddattha Gotama attained bodhi_ by bodhi is meant an ideal state of intellectual and ethical perfection, also known as Buddhahood.

Buddhagaya or place of Buddha’s enlightenment is situated on the banks of the river Niranjana, Buddhagaya was originally a part of the Uruvela village (presently Urail). Its geographical location is at 24o 41′ 45” N. Latitude and 85o 2′ 22” E. Longitude and is located in Bihar.

Now

The Buddha’s experience at Uruvela not only resulted in the location changing its name to Bodhgaya or Buddhagaya; it has also meant that this, otherwise an obscure village, has been the focus of attention for millions of pilgrims. It became very early and remains even today, the most important place of Buddhist pilgrimage. The exact place where the Buddha sat, when he was enlightened, was called Vajrasana meaning ‘Diamond Throne’. The Vajrasana was also, sometimes, called the Victory Throne of all the Buddha’s (Sabbabuddhanam Jayapallankam) or the Navel of the Earth (Pathavinabhi). The Vajrasana which was also called Sambodhi by King Asoka but the most widely used and also the most enduring of Buddhagaya’s names was Mahabodhi meaning ‘great enlightenment’.The Mahabodhi Temple has been built where Lord Buddha got divine light.

History

Buddhagaya remained the cynosure of the Buddhist world upto the 13th century, thereafter due to the sudden political upheavals that took place in and out of India, activities at Buddhagaya were also interrupted and disrupted. The place was deserted and became desolate and it remained neglected and forgotten for several centuries.

The Buddha – Siddhartha Gautam was born into the Shakya royal family in Lumbini in south Nepal. Using historical records referring to Alexander the Great and Emperor Ashoka, the Buddha’s birth date is usually given as May 563 BC.

His mother, Queen Maya Devi was on her way to her parent’s home at Rangram for the birth as was the tradition at that time. Before reaching her destination, she went into labour at Lumbini. There, she bathed in a bricked pool called Puskarni and then walked 25 paces to deliver the baby. The Buddha was born as she leant against a sal tree. Sadly, Maya Devi died seven days after his birth and he was brought up by her younger sister and the second wife of Suddhodan, Pajapati.

Now

Lumbini grove (above), the sacred site of Lord Buddha’s birth is today a small village in Nepal, 27 km from Sonauli on the Indo-Nepal Border.

Emperor Ashoka’s pillar, though broken, still remains at the site. It is known as the Rummendei Pillar after the earlier name of the place (modern name Rupandhei) in Nepal.

• Air: Nearest airport is Varanasi (323 km) and Bhairawha, Nepal.

• Rail: The nearest railway station is Gorakhpur 123 km away.

• Road: Buses ply up to the Indian side of the border, from where the passengers have to disembark and take another bus after crossing the border check post.

The Maya Devi temple (above), a stone relief (probably 2nd century AD) shows her giving birth to the Buddha watched by the two Hindu gods Brahma and Indra. The area is currently being developed into a Sacred Peace Garden spread over 8 sq. km. along with the building of several stupas and monasteries by Buddhist traditions from all over the world. The Ashokan Pillar stands out quite clearly and is surrounded by the ruins of four stupas.

History

Three hundred years after Buddha’s death, Emperor Ashoka visited Lumbini and erected a pillar there.

In AD 636, Chinese pilgrim Huian Tsang described the place thus “where the lord was born is a piece of heaven on earth and one could see the snowy mountains amidst a splendid garden – embedded with stupas and monasteries”. He also noted a stone pillar broken in two surrounded by four stupas.

In 1896, at Lumbini Dr Fuhrer re-discovered the stone pillar erected as a mark of respect by Ashoka, the Indian Emperor and a follower of the Buddha’s teaching. The pillar is inscribed “Twenty years after his coronation, King Devanampiya Piyadasi (Ashoka) came here and paid homage, because the Buddha, the sage of the Shakya clan, was born here. He ordered a stone relief to be made and a stone pillar to be erected, to indicate that the Blessed One was born here. He exempted the village of Lumbini from taxes and reduced its toll of produce (from the usual quarter) to one eighth.” The inscription was made in the local dialect Magadhi, using Brahmin script.

In 1995, an international team uncovered a commemorative stone resting on top of a platform of bricks under the Maya Devi temple. The stone dates back to the time of the Emperor Ashoka who visited Lumbini is 249 BC. Ancient Buddhist texts which describe the place of his birth as being 25 paces from the pool where his mother bathed have been validated by this discovery.

According to the Buddhist traditional records, the historical Buddha Siddharta Gautama at the age of 35, while meditating under a fig tree, now known as the Bodhi tree, he attained Enlightenment. He was then known as Gautama Buddha, or simply “The Buddha”, which means “the enlightened one”.

Buddha then endeavored to share his wisdom with all those around him. For the remaining 45 years of his life, he travelled the Gangetic Plain of central India (region of the Ganges/Ganga river and its tributaries), teaching his doctrine and discipline to an extremely diverse range of people. He traveled all through what is present day India and Nepal preaching and educating others about the middle path. He founded a theology based on moderation.

In general, Buddhism is a practice of finding peace within oneself. It is a religion formulated to win peaceful happiness during the present life and beyond. Their desire is to live happily, not harming others, working towards their ultimate goal of enlightenment.

Soon after Buddha’s death or parinirvana, five hundred monks met at the first council at Rajagrha, under the leadership of Kashyapa.  Upali recited the monastic code (Vinaya) as he remembered it.  Ananda, Buddha’s cousin, friend, and disciple — and a man of prodigious memory– recited Buddha’s preachings (the Sutras).  The monks debated details and made their best efforts to preserve Buddha?s teachings purely and exactly as they were said by Buddha.  These were then committed to memory by other monks, to be translated into the many languages of the Indian plains.

In the next few centuries, the original unity of Buddhism began to fragment. The most significant split occurred after the second council, held at Vaishali 100 years after the first.  After debates between a more liberal group and traditionalists, the liberal group left and labeled themselves the Mahasangha — “the great sangha.”  The liberals became proponents of more relaxed monastic rules, which could appeal to a large majority of monastic and lay people (hence their name the “great” or “majority” assembly). They would eventually evolve into the Mahayana tradition of northern Asia.

The traditionalists, now referred to as Theravada or “way of the elders? compiled a complex set of philosophical ideas elucidated by Buddha.  These were collected into the Abhidharma or “higher teachings.”

Later one splinter group after another left the main fold.  Ultimately, 18 schools developed, each with their own interpretations of various issues, and spread all over India and Southeast Asia. But today, only the school stemming from the Sri Lankan Theravadan School survives in Burma, Sri Lankar and Thailand, etc.

Ashoka

One of the most significant events in the history of Buddhism is the chance encounter of the monk Nigrodha and the emperor Ashoka Maurya (273?232 BCE).  Ashoka, succeeding his father after a bloody power struggle in 268 bc, found himself deeply disturbed by the carnage he caused while suppressing a revolt in the land of the Kalingas (today’s Orissa in eastern India).  Meeting with Nigrodha convinced Emperor Ashoka to devote himself to peace.  On his orders, thousands of rock pillars were erected, bearing the words of the Buddha, in the brahmi script — the first written evidence of Buddhism.  The third council of monks was held at Pataliputra, the capital of Ashoka’s empire.

The king decided to renounce violence, and propagate the faith by building stupas and pillars urging for the respect of all life forms, and enjoining people to follow the Dharma. He also built roads, hospitals, resthouses, universities and irrigation systems around the country. He treated his subjects as equals regardless of their religion, politics or caste.

This period marks the first spread of Buddhism beyond India. According to the plates and pillars left by Ashoka (the Edicts of Ashoka), emissaries were sent to various countries in order to spread Buddhism, as far as the Greek kingdoms in the West, in particular the neighboring Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, and possibly even farther to the Mediterranean.

Some went as far as Egypt, Palestine, and Greece.  St. Origen even mentions them as having reached Britain.  The Greeks of one of the Alexandrian kingdoms of northern India adopted Buddhism, after their King Menandros (Pali:  Milinda) was convinced by a monk named Nagasena — the conversation immortalized in the Milinda Pa?ha.  A Kushan king of north India named Kanishka was also converted, and a council was held in Kashmir in about 100 ad.

It is interesting to note that there is a saint in Orthodox Christianity named Josaphat, an Indian king whose story is essentially that of the Buddha.  Josaphat is thought to be a distortion of the word bodhisattva.

Emperor Ashoka sent one of his sons, Mahinda, and one of his daughters, Sanghamitta, a monk and a nun, to Sri Lanka (Ceylon) around the year 240 bc.  The king of Sri Lanka, King Devanampiyatissa, welcomed them and was converted.  One of the gifts they brought with them was a branch of the bodhi tree, which was successfully transplanted.  The descendants of this branch can still be found on the island.

King Ashoka convened the third Buddhist council around 250 BCE at Pataliputra (today’s Patna). It was held by the monk Moggaliputta. The objective of the council was to reconcile the different schools of Buddhism, to purify the Buddhist movement, particularly from opportunistic factions which had been attracted by the royal patronage, and to organize the dispatch of Buddhist missionaries throughout the known world. The Pali canon (Tipitaka, or Tripitaka in Sanskrit, literally the “Three Baskets”), which comprises the texts of reference of traditional Buddhism and is considered to be directly transmitted from the Buddha, was formalized at that time. The three sections of the Pali canon are the Vinaya Pitaka (the monastic law), the Sutta Pitaka (words of the Buddha), and the Abhidamma Pitaka (the philosophical commentaries). Greek Buddhists there recorded the Sutras on copper sheets which, unfortunately, were never recovered.

The fourth council was held in Sri Lanka, in the Aloka Cave, in the first century bc.  During this time as well, and for the first time, the entire set of Sutras were recorded in the Pali language on palm leaves, from which so much of our knowledge of Buddhism derives.

The Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius I invaded India in 180 BCE as far as Pataliputra, establishing an Indo-Greek kingdom that was to last in various part of northern India until the end of the 1st century BCE. Buddhism flourished under the Indo-Greek kings, and it has been suggested that their invasion of India was intended to show their support for the Mauryan empire, and to protect the Buddhist faith from the alleged religious persecutions of the Sungas (185?73 BCE).

(A Greco-Buddhist statue, one of the first representations of the Buddha, 1st-2nd century CE, Gandhara.)

One of the most famous Indo-Greek kings is Menander (reigned c. 160?135 BCE). He apparently converted to Buddhism and is presented in the Mahayana tradition as one of the great benefactors of the faith, on a par with king Ashoka or the later Kushan king Kanishka. Menander’s coins bear the mention “Saviour king” in Greek, and sometimes designs of the eight-spoked wheel. Direct cultural exchange is also suggested by the dialogue of the Milinda Panha between Menander and the monk Nagasena around 160 BCE. Upon his death, the honour of sharing his remains was claimed by the cities under his rule, and they were enshrined in stupas, in a parallel with the historic Buddha (Plutarch, Praec. reip. ger. 28, 6). Several of Menander’s Indo-Greek successors inscribed the mention “Follower of the Dharma” in the Kharoshthi script on their coins, and depicted themselves or their divinities forming the vitarka mudra.

In 185 BCE, about 50 years after Ashoka’s death, the Sunga dynasty (185?73 BCE) was established. After deposing King Brhadrata (last of the Mauryan rulers), military commander-in-chief Pusyamitra Sunga took the throne. An orthodox Brahmin, Sunga was allegedly hostile towards Buddhists and allegedly persecuted the Buddhist faith. He is recorded as having “destroyed monasteries and killed Monks” (Divyavadana, pp. 429?434): 84,000 Buddhist stupas which had been built by Ashoka were “destroyed” (R. Thaper), and 100 gold coins were offered for the head of each Buddhist monk (Indian Historical Quarterly Vol. XXII, p. 81 ff cited in Hars.407). A large number of Buddhist monasteries (viharas) were said to have been converted to Hindu temples, in such places as Nalanda, Bodhgaya, Sarnath, or Mathura.

During the period, Buddhist monks deserted the Ganges valley, following either the Northern road (Uttarapatha) or the Southern road (Daksinapatha).

In the areas east of the Indian subcontinent (today’s Burma), Indian culture strongly influenced the Mons. The Mons are said to have been converted to Buddhism around 200 BCE under the proselytizing of the Indian king Ashoka. Early Mon Buddhist temples, such as Peikthano in central Burma, have been dated between the 1st and the 5th century CE.

Mons? Wheel of the Law (Dharmachakra), art of Dvaravati, c.8th century.

The Theravada faith expanded in the northern parts of Southeast Asia under Mon influence.

Amaravati Buddhist Centre, U.K.

The purpose of Insight Meditation is not to create a system of beliefs, but rather to give guidance on how to see clearly into the nature of the mind. In this way one gains first-hand understanding of the way things are, without reliance on opinions or theories — a direct experience, which has its own vitality. It also gives rise to the sense of deep calm that comes from knowing something for oneself, beyond any doubt.

Insight Meditation is a key factor in the path that the Buddha offered for the welfare of human beings; the only criterion is that one has to put it into practice! These pages, therefore, describe a series of meditation exercises, and practical advice on how to use them. It works best if the reader follows the guide progressively, giving each sequence of instructions a good work-out before proceeding further.

The term “Insight Meditation” (samatha-vipassana) refers to practices for the mind that develop calm (samatha) through sustained attention, and insight (vipassana) through reflection. A fundamental technique for sustaining attention is focusing awareness on the body; traditionally, this is practised while sitting or walking. The guide begins with some advice on this.

Reflection occurs quite naturally afterwards, when one is “comfortable” within the context of the meditation exercise. There will be a sense of ease and interest, and one begins to look around and become acquainted with the mind that is meditating. This “looking around” is called contemplation, a personal and direct seeing that can only be suggested by any technique. A few ideas and guidance on this come in a later section.

(It should be noted that knowledge of terms in Pali — the canonical language of Theravada Buddhism — is not necessary to begin the practice of meditation. It can be useful, however, to provide reference points to the large source of guidance in the Theravada Canon, as well as to the teaching of many contemporary masters who still find such words more precise than their English equivalents.)

1. Sustaining Attention

SITTING

Time and Place

Focusing the mind on the body can be readily accomplished while sitting. You need to find a time and a place which affords you calm and freedom from disturbance.

A quiet room with not much in it to distract the mind is ideal; a setting with light and space has a brightening and clearing effect, while a cluttered and gloomy room has just the opposite. Timing is also important, particularly as most people’s days are quite structured with routines. It is not especially productive to meditate when you have something else to do, or when you’re pressed for time. It’s better to set aside a period — say, in the early morning or in the evening after work — when you can really give your full attention to the practice. Begin with fifteen minutes or so. Practise sincerely with the limitations of time and available energy, and avoid becoming mechanical about the routine. Meditation practice, supported by genuine willingness to investigate and make peace with oneself, will develop naturally in terms of duration and skill.

Awareness of the body

The development of calm is aided by stability, and by a steady but peaceful effort. If you can’t feel settled, there’s no peacefulness; if there’s no sense of application, you tend to day-dream. One of the most effective postures for the cultivation of the proper combination of stillness and energy is sitting.

Use a posture that will keep your back straight without strain. A simple upright chair may be helpful, or you may be able to use one of the lotus postures (See the ?Notes on Posture”). These look awkward at first, but in time they can provide a unique balance of gentle firmness that gladdens the mind without tiring the body.

If the chin is tilted very slightly down this will help, but do not allow the head to loll forward as this encourages drowsiness. Place the hands on your lap, palms upwards, one gently resting on the other with the thumb-tips touching. Take your time, and get the right balance.

Now, collect your attention, and begin to move it slowly down your body. Notice the sensations. Relax any tensions, particularly in the face, neck and hands. Allow the eyelids to close or half close.

Investigate how you are feeling. Expectant or tense? Then relax your attention a little. With this, the mind will probably calm down, and you may find some thoughts drifting in — reflections, daydreams, memories, or doubts about whether you are doing it right! Instead of following or contending with these thought patterns, bring more attention to the body, which is a useful anchor for a wandering mind.

Cultivate a spirit of inquiry in your meditation attitude. Take your time. Move your attention, for example, systematically from the crown of the head down over the whole body. Notice the different sensations — such as warmth, pulsing, numbness, and sensitivity — in the joints of each finger, the moisture of the palms, and the pulse in the wrist. Even areas that may have no particular sensation, such as the forearms or the earlobes, can be “swept over” in an attentive way. Notice how even the lack of sensation is something the mind can be aware of. This constant and sustained investigation is called mindfulness (sati) and is one of the primary tools of Insight Meditation.

Mindfulness of breathing (anapanasati)

Instead of “body sweeping”, or after a preliminary period of this practice, mindfulness can be developed through attention on the breath.

First, follow the sensation of your ordinary breath as it flows in through the nostrils and fills the chest and abdomen. Then try maintaining your attention at one point, either at the diaphragm or — a more refined location — at the nostrils. Breath has a tranquillizing quality, steady and relaxing if you don’t force it; this is helped by an upright posture. Your mind may wander, but keep patiently returning to the breath.

It is not necessary to develop concentration to the point of excluding everything else except the breath. Rather than to create a trance, the purpose here is to allow you to notice the workings of the mind, and to bring a measure of peaceful clarity into it. The entire process — gathering your attention, noticing the breath, noticing that the mind has wandered, and re-establishing your attention — develops mindfulness, patience and insightful understanding. So don’t be put off by apparent “failure” — simply begin again. Continuing in this way allows the mind eventually to calm down.

If you get very restless or agitated, just relax. Practise being at peace with yourself, listening to — without necessarily believing in — the voices of the mind.

If you feet drowsy, then put more care and attention into your body and posture. Refining your attention or pursuing tranquillity at such times will only make matters worse!

WALKING AND STANDING

Many meditation exercises, such as the above “mindfulness of breathing”, are practised while sitting. However, walking is commonly alternated with sitting as a form for meditation. Apart from giving you different things to notice, it’s a skilful way to energize the practice if the calming effect of sitting is making you dull.

If you have access to some open land, measure off about 25-30 paces’ length of level ground (or a clearly defined pathway between two trees), as your meditation path. Stand at one end of the path, and compose your mind on the sensations of the body. First, let the attention rest on the feeling of the body standing upright, with the arms hanging naturally and the hands lightly clasped in front or behind. Allow the eyes to gaze at a point about three metres in front of you at ground level, thus avoiding visual distraction. Now, walk gently, at a deliberate but “normal” pace, to the end of the path. Stop. Focus on the body standing for the period of a couple of breaths. Turn, and walk back again. While walking, be aware of the general flow of physical sensations, or more closely direct your attention to the feet. The exercise for the mind is to keep bringing its attention back to the sensation of the feet touching the ground, the spaces between each step, and the feelings of stopping and starting.

Of course, the mind will wander. So it is important to cultivate patience, and the resolve to begin again. Adjust the pace to suit your state of mind — vigorous when drowsy or trapped in obsessive thought, firm but gentle when restless and impatient. At the end of the path, stop; breathe in and out; “let go” of any restlessness, worry, calm, bliss, memories or opinions about yourself. The “inner chatter” may stop momentarily, or fade out. Begin again. In this way you continually refresh the mind, and allow it to settle at its own rate.

In more confined spaces, alter the length of the path to suit what is available. Alternatively, you can circum-ambulate a room, pausing after each circumambulation for a few moments of standing. This period of standing can be extended to several minutes, using “body sweeping”.

Walking brings energy and fluidity into the practice, so keep your pace steady and just let changing conditions pass through the mind. Rather than expecting the mind to be as still as it might be while sitting, contemplate the flow of phenomena. It is remarkable how many times we can become engrossed in a train of thought — arriving at the end of the path and “coming to” with a start! — but it is natural for our untrained minds to become absorbed in thoughts and moods. So instead of giving in to impatience, learn how to let go, and begin again. A sense of ease and calm may then arise, allowing the mind to become open and clear in a natural, unforced way.

LYING DOWN

Reclining at the end of a day, spend a few minutes meditating while lying on one side. Keep the body quite straight and bend one arm up so that the hand acts as a support for the head. Sweep through the body, resting its stresses; or collect your attention on the breath, consciously putting aside memories of the day just past and expectations of tomorrow. In a few minutes, with your mind clear, you’ll be able to rest well.

CULTIVATING THE HEART

Cultivating good-will (metta) gives another dimension to the practice of Insight. Meditation naturally teaches patience and tolerance, or at least it shows the importance of these qualities. So you may well wish to develop a friendlier and more caring attitude towards yourself and other people. In meditation, you can cultivate good-will very realistically.

Focus attention on the breath, which you will now be using as the means of spreading kindness and good-will. Begin with yourself, with your body. Visualise the breath as a light, or see your awareness as being a warm ray, and gradually sweep it over your body. Lightly focus your attention on the centre of the chest, around the heart region. As you breathe in, direct patient kindness towards yourself, perhaps with the thought, “May I be well”, or “Peace”. As you breathe out, let the mood of that thought, or the awareness of light, spread outwards from the heart, through the body, through the mind, and beyond yourself. “May others be well.”

If you are experiencing negative states of mind, breathe in the qualities of tolerance and forgiveness. Visualising the breath as having a healing colour may be helpful. On the out-breath, let go — of any stress, worry or negativity — and extend the sense of release through the body, the mind, and beyond, as before.

This practice can form all or part of a period of meditation — you have to judge for yourself what is appropriate. The calming effect of meditating with a kindly attitude is good for beginning a sitting, but there will no doubt be times to use this approach for long periods, to go deeply into the heart.

Always begin with what you are aware of, even if it seems trivial or confused. Let your mind rest calmly on that — whether it’s boredom, an aching knee, or the frustration of not feeling particularly kindly. Allow these to be; practise being at peace with them. Recognise and gently put aside any tendencies towards laziness, doubt or guilt.

Peacefulness can develop into a very nourishing kindness towards yourself, if you first of all fully accept the presence of what you dislike. Keep the attention steady, and open the heart to whatever you experience. This does not imply approval of negative states, but allows them a space wherein they can come and go.

Generating good-will toward the world beyond yourself follows much the same pattern. A simple way to spread kindness is to work in stages. Start with yourself, joining the sense of loving acceptance to the movement of the breath. “May I be well.” Then, reflect on people you love and respect, and wish them well, one by one. Move on to friendly acquaintances, then to those towards whom you feel indifferent. “May they be well.” Finally, bring to mind those people you fear or dislike, and continue to send out wishes of good-will.

This meditation can expand, in a movement of compassion, to include all people in the world, in their many circumstances. And remember, you don’t have to feel that you love everyone in order to wish them well!

Kindness and compassion originate from the same source of good will, and they broaden the mind beyond the purely personal perspective. If you’re not always trying to make things go the way you want them to; if you’re more accepting and receptive to yourself and others as they are, compassion arises by itself. Compassion is the natural sensitivity of the heart.

2. Reflection

CHOICELESS AWARENESS

Meditation can also proceed without a meditation object, in a state of pure contemplation, or “choice-less awareness”.

After calming the mind by one of the methods described above, consciously put aside the meditation object. Observe the flow of mental images and sensations just as they arise, without engaging in criticism or praise. Notice any aversion and fascination; contemplate any uncertainty, happiness, restlessness or tranquillity as it arises. You can return to a meditation object (such as the breath), whenever the sense of clarity diminishes, or if you begin to feel overwhelmed by impressions. When a sense of steadiness returns, you can relinquish the object again.

This practice of “bare attention” is well-suited for contemplating the mental process. Along with observing the mind’s particular “ingredients”, we can turn our attention to the nature of the container. As for the contents of the mind, Buddhist teaching points especially to three simple, fundamental characteristics.

First, there is changeability (anicca) – the ceaseless beginning and ending all things go through, the constant movement of the content of the mind. This mind-stuff may be pleasant or unpleasant, but it is never at rest.

There is also a persistent, often subtle, sense of dissatisfaction (dukkha). Unpleasant sensations easily evoke that sense, but even a lovely experience creates a tug in the heart when it ends. So at the best of moments there is still an inconclusive quality in what the mind experiences, a somewhat unsatisfied feeling.

As the constant arising and passing of experiences and moods become familiar, it also becomes clear that — since there is no permanence in them — none of them really belong to you. And, when this mind-stuff is silent — revealing a bright spaciousness of mind — there are no purely personal characteristics to be found! This can be difficult to comprehend, but in reality there is no “me” and no “mine”– the characteristic of “no-self”, or impersonality (anatta).

Investigate fully and notice how these qualities pertain to all things, physical and mental. No matter if your experiences are joyful or barely endurable; this contemplation will lead to a calm and balanced perspective on your life.

CONTEMPLATING YOUR PRACTICE

These meditation exercises all serve to establish awareness of things as they are. By bringing your mind fully onto experiences, you will notice more clearly the state of the mind itself — for example, whether you are being lazy or over-eager in your practice. With a little honest appraisal, it becomes evident that the quality of the meditation practice depends, not on the exercise being used, but on what you are putting into it. Reflecting in this way, you will gain deeper insight into your personality and habits.

There are some useful points to bear in mind whenever you meditate. Consider whether you are beginning afresh each time — or even better, with each breath or footstep. If you don’t practise with an open mind, you may find yourself trying to recreate a past insight, or unwilling to learn from your mistakes. Is there the right balance of energy whereby you are doing all that you can without being over-forceful? Are you keeping in touch with what is actually happening in your mind, or using a technique in a dull, mechanical way? As for concentration, it’s good to check whether you are putting aside concerns that are not immediate, or letting yourself meander in thoughts and moods. Or, are you trying to repress feelings without acknowledging them and responding wisely?

Proper concentration is that which unifies the heart and mind. Reflecting in this way encourages you to develop a skilful approach. And of course, reflection will show you more than how to meditate: it will give you the clarity to understand yourself.

Remember, until you’ve developed some skill and case with meditation, it’s best to use a meditation object, such as the breath, as a focus for awareness and as an antidote for the overwhelming nature of the mind’s distractions. Even so, whatever your length of experience with the practice, it is always helpful to return to awareness of the breath or body. Developing this ability to begin again leads to stability and case. With a balanced practice, you realise more and more the way the body and mind are, and see how to live with greater freedom and harmony. This is the purpose and the fruit of Insight Meditation.

LIVING INSIGHTFULLY

With the practice of Insight Meditation you will see your attitudes more clearly, and come to know which are helpful and which create difficulties. An open attitude can make even unpleasant experiences insightful — for instance, understanding the way that the mind reacts against pain or sickness. When you approach such experiences in this way, you can often unwind the stress and resistance to pain, and alleviate it to a great degree. On the other hand, an impatient streak will have different results: becoming annoyed with others if they disturb your meditation; being disappointed if your practice doesn’t seem to be progressing fast enough; falling into unpleasant moods over insignificant matters. Meditation teaches us that peace of mind — or its absence — essentially depends on whether or not we contemplate the events of life in a spirit of reflection and open-mindedness.

By looking into your intentions and attitudes in the quiet of meditation, you can investigate the relationship between desire and dissatisfaction. See the causes of discontent: wanting what you don’t have; rejecting what you dislike; being unable to keep what you want. This is especially oppressive when the subject of the discontent and desire is yourself. No-one finds it easy to be at peace with personal weakness, especially when so much social emphasis is placed on feeling good, getting ahead and having the best. Such expectations indeed make it difficult to accept oneself as one is.

However, with the practice of insight meditation, you discover a space in which to stand back a little from what you think you are, from what you think you have. Contemplating these perceptions, it becomes clearer that you don’t have any thing as “me” or “mine”; there are simply experiences, which come and go through the mind. So if, for example, you’re looking into an irritating habit, rather than becoming depressed by it, you don’t reinforce it and the habit passes away. It may come back again, but this time it’s weaker, and you know what to do. Through cultivating peaceful attention, mental content calms down and may even fade out, leaving the mind clear and refreshed. Such is the ongoing path of insight.

To be able to go to a still centre of awareness within the changing flow of daily life is the sign of a mature practice, for insight deepens immeasurably when it is able to spread to all experience. Try to use the perspective of insight no matter what you are doing — routine housework, driving the car, having a cup of tea. Collect the awareness, rest it steadily on what you are doing, and rouse a sense of inquiry into the nature of the mind in the mist of activity. Using the practice to centre on physical sensations, mental states, or eye-, ear- or nose-consciousness can develop an ongoing contemplation that turns mundane tasks into foundations for insight.

Centred more and more in awareness, the mind becomes free to respond skilfully to the moment, and there is greater harmony in life. This is the way that meditation does “social work”– by bringing awareness into your life, it brings peace into the world. When you can abide peacefully with the great variety of feelings that arise in consciousness, you are able to live more open[y with the world, and with yourself as you are.

3. Further Suggestions

PERSONAL CONDUCT

As our insight deepens, we see more clearly the results of our actions — the peace that good intention, sincerity and clear-mindedness promote, and the trouble that confusion and carelessness create. It is this greater sensitivity, observing in particular the distress we cause ourselves and others, that often inspires us to want to live more wisely. For true peace of mind, it is indispensable that formal meditation be combined with a commitment to responsibility and with care for oneself and others.

There is really nothing mysterious about the path of Insight. In the words of the Buddha, the way is simple: “Do good, refrain from doing evil, and purify the mind“. It is a long-observed tradition, then, for people who engage in spiritual practice to place great importance on proper conduct. Many meditators undertake realistic moral vows — such as refraining from harming living beings, from stealing, from careless use of sexuality, from using intoxicants (alcohol and drugs), and from gossip and other graceless speech habits -- to help their own inner clarity, and perhaps gently encourage that of others.

COMPANY AND ROUTINE

Meditating with a few friends at regular times can be a great support towards constancy of practice and development of wisdom. The solitary meditator eventually faces diminishing will-power, as there’s often something else to do that seems more important (or more interesting) than watching the breath. Regular group meditation for an agreed-upon duration keeps the participants going, regardless of their flux of moods. (The investigation of these shifts of disposition often yields important insights, but on our own we can find it difficult to persevere with them.) As well as seeing the personal benefits, you can reflect that your efforts are helping others to keep practising.

NOTES ON POSTURE

The ideal is an upright, alert posture. Slumping only increases the pressure on the legs and discomfort in the back. It is important to attend to your posture with wisdom, not insensitive will-power! Posture will improve in time, but you need to work with the body, not use force against it.

• Check your posture:

o Are the hips leaning back? This will cause a slump.

o The small of the back should have its natural, unforced curve so that the abdomen is forward and “open”.

o Imagine that someone is gently pushing between the shoulder blades, while keeping the muscles relaxed. This will give you an idea of whether you unconsciously “hunch” your shoulders (and hence close your chest).

o Note, and gently release, any tension in the neck/shoulder region.

• If your posture feels tense or stack:

o Allow the spine to straighten by imagining the crown of the head as suspended from above. This also lets the chin tuck in slightly.

o Keep the arms light and held back against the abdomen. If they are forward, they pull you out of balance.

o Use a small firm cushion underneath and toward the back of the buttocks to support the angle of the hips.

• For the legs:

o Practise some stretching exercises (like touching the toes with both legs stretched out, while sitting).

o If you have a lot of pain during a period of sitting, change posture, sit on a small stool or chair, or stand up for a while.

o If you usually (or wish to) sit on or near the floor, experiment with cushions of different size and firmness, or try out one of the special meditation stools that are available.

• For drowsiness:

o Try meditating with your eyes open.

o “Sweep” your attention systematically around your body.

o Focus on the whole body and on physical sensations, rather than on a subtle object like the breath.

o Stand up and walk mindfully for a while in the open air.

• For tension or headaches:

o You may be trying too hard — this is not unusual! — so lighten your concentration. For instance, you might move your attention to the sensation of the breath at the abdomen.

o Generate the energy of good-will (see the section on “Cultivating the Heart“), and direct it towards the area of tension.

o Visualising and spreading light through the body can be helpful in alleviating its aches and pains. Try actually focusing a benevolent light on an area of difficulty!

This is not a comprehensive or exclusive guide, but a suggested outline for practice. Meditators are strongly recommended to seek a trustworthy and experienced “spiritual friend” or teacher for ongoing advice.

May all beings be at peace; May all beings be freed from suffering

Note: This booklet was originally published in 1988 by Amaravati Buddhist Centre, UK, for free distribution. It was subsequently reprinted by the Buddhist Society of Western Australia in 1997. Contact addresses:

1. Amaravati Buddhist Centre
   Great Gaddesden. Hemel Hempstead
   Hertfordshire. HP1-3PZ. U.K.
2. Dhammaloka Buddhist Centre
   18 Nanson Way
   Nollamara. WA 6020. AUSTRALIA

Special thanks to Phat-Tan Nguyen (Quebec, Canada) for his kind assistance in scanning the original document.

Buddhism is unique among the major religions in the emphasis it gives to meditation.

There are many types and forms of meditation used in the various schools of Buddhism. Buddhaghosa enumerated 40 methods of meditation in the Theravadin Visuddhimagga; nowadays there are many more in the various schools. The various methods of meditation can be divided into samatha meditation (tranquility meditation) and vipassana meditation (insight meditation).

Samatha

Samatha literally means ‘tranquility’ or ‘calm’. The initial stages of samatha meditation are to do with concentrating the mind. Traditionally, the subjects to concentrate the mind on include, amongst others, the ten kasinas (for example, discs of various color, light such as a candle flame, water), and various kinds of bodily decay (for example, a festering corpse). Well-known samatha type of meditations include mindfulness of breathing, mindfulness of bodily movement, mindfulness on bodily posture (sitting, walking, standing and lying down), and mettā bhāvanā (development of loving kindness).

The most widely practiced techniques is mindfulness of breathing (anapanasati), where both mind and body are calmed by concentrating on the breath.

When the mind is totally focused and the hindrances on mental purity and clarity, such as ill-will, sensual desire, anxiety, sloth and doubt, have been eradicated – if only temporarily – from the mind, the meditator gains what is known as jhanas. These are states of great calm and peace but fall short of nirvana, the moral perfection and enlightenment.

Vipassana

Vipassana or ‘insight’ meditation emphasizes on seeing things as they really are, unclouded by attraction or aversion.

Vipassanā meditation is a very simple, logical technique which depends on direct experience and observation. It can be related to the three trainings taught by the Buddha as the basis of a spiritual path _

1. adherence to a sīla (Sanskrit: śīla) (abstinence from killing, stealing, lying, sexual misconduct and intoxication), which is not an end in itself but a requirement for the second part,
2. concentration of the mind (samādhi).
3. With this concentrated mind, the third training, in the context of this technique (pa??ā, Sanskrit praj?ā), is detached observation of the reality of the mind and body from moment to moment.

The basic practice is to note everything you are doing as you are doing it. When you are walking, be aware of the sensation in your foot as it touches the ground, and the different sensations as it rises again. In a sense, this is the first stage of vipassana meditation: bare awareness. Alongside this bare attention will come the insight into the three characteristics of life: impermanence (anicca), suffering (dukkha) and non-self (anatta). Vipassana is a meditation method that can take one all the way to Nibbana.

Combining the Two

It is not unusual for both practices to be combined. Quite often a beginner will start with samatha meditation, moving on to vipassana when some mastery over concentration has been achieved.